Women in Mathematics: Progress, Challenges, and the Future
A look at the history and current state of women in mathematics — the pioneers who broke barriers, the challenges that persist, and the work being done to build a more inclusive field.
A Long History of Exclusion
For most of its history, mathematics was closed to women — not because of any lack of ability, but because of systematic exclusion from education, institutions, and professional life.
Understanding this history is essential for understanding why the gender imbalance in mathematics persists today, and why efforts to address it matter.
The Pioneers
Sophie Germain (1776–1831)
Germain taught herself mathematics from books in her father's library during the French Revolution. Barred from attending the École Polytechnique, she submitted work under a male pseudonym. Her contributions to number theory and elasticity theory were significant, yet she was never granted a university position.
Sofia Kovalevskaya (1850–1891)
Kovalevskaya was the first woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics (Göttingen, 1874) and the first to hold a full professorship in mathematics in Europe (Stockholm, 1889). Despite her accomplishments, she faced constant resistance from institutions that did not accept women.
"Say what you know, do what you must, come what may."
— Sofia Kovalevskaya (her personal motto, adapted from a line attributed to various sources)
Emmy Noether (1882–1935)
Noether is widely regarded as one of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century. Her work on abstract algebra — ring theory, ideal theory, and the ascending chain condition — fundamentally shaped modern mathematics. Her theorem connecting symmetries and conservation laws is a cornerstone of theoretical physics.
Despite her brilliance, she was denied a paid position at the University of Göttingen for years. David Hilbert famously defended her, arguing:
"I do not see that the sex of the candidate is an argument against her admission as Privatdozent. After all, we are a university, not a bath house."
— David Hilbert, arguing for Emmy Noether's habilitation
When she died in 1935, Albert Einstein wrote in The New York Times: "In the judgment of the most competent living mathematicians, Fräulein Noether was the most significant creative mathematical genius thus far produced since the higher education of women began."
Julia Robinson (1919–1985)
Robinson made fundamental contributions to the solution of Hilbert's tenth problem, concerning the solvability of Diophantine equations. She was the first woman elected to the mathematical section of the National Academy of Sciences and the first woman president of the American Mathematical Society.
The Modern Era
Maryam Mirzakhani (1977–2017)
In 2014, Mirzakhani became the first woman to win the Fields Medal, for her work on the dynamics and geometry of Riemann surfaces and their moduli spaces. Her award was a watershed moment.
Mirzakhani's approach to mathematics was deeply visual — she would cover large sheets of paper with drawings as she worked. She described her work in characteristically humble terms:
"I don't have any particular recipe. It is the reason why doing research is challenging as well as attractive. It is like being lost in a jungle and trying to use all the knowledge that you can gather to come up with some new tricks, and with some luck you might find a way out."
— Maryam Mirzakhani
Her death from cancer in 2017, at age 40, was mourned worldwide. The Maryam Mirzakhani Award, established by the National Academy of Sciences, honors her legacy.
Maryna Viazovska (b. 1984)
In 2022, Viazovska became the second woman to receive the Fields Medal, for her proof that the lattice provides the densest packing of spheres in eight dimensions. Her proof was described as "stunningly elegant" by the mathematical community.
Karen Uhlenbeck (b. 1942)
In 2019, Uhlenbeck became the first woman to win the Abel Prize, for her foundational work in geometric analysis and gauge theory. Her contributions have been essential to mathematical physics and differential geometry.
The Current State
By the Numbers
Progress has been real but incomplete:
- In the United States, women earn approximately 42% of bachelor's degrees in mathematics (National Science Foundation data), but only about 29% of doctoral degrees.
- Women hold approximately 20–25% of tenure-track positions in mathematics departments at research universities, and a smaller percentage at the full professor level.
- Among the 64 Fields Medalists through 2022, only two have been women.
- Among the Abel Prize recipients through 2023, only one has been a woman.
The numbers improve at the undergraduate level but thin dramatically at each subsequent career stage — a pattern known as the leaky pipeline.
The Leaky Pipeline
At every transition point — from undergraduate to graduate school, from graduate school to postdoc, from postdoc to tenure track, from tenure track to tenured position — women leave mathematics at higher rates than men.
The reasons are complex and interrelated:
- Cultural expectations: Subtle (and not-so-subtle) messages that mathematics is a "male" field.
- Lack of role models: Fewer visible women in senior positions.
- Implicit bias: Research consistently shows that identical work is evaluated more favorably when attributed to a man.
- Hostile environments: Harassment, microaggressions, and exclusionary cultures persist in some departments.
- Work-life balance: The tenure clock overlaps with prime childbearing years, creating pressures that disproportionately affect women.
- Isolation: Being the only woman in a room, a seminar, or a department is exhausting and demoralizing over time.
What Is Being Done
Organizations and Programs
Several organizations work specifically to support women in mathematics:
- Association for Women in Mathematics (AWM): Founded in 1971, the AWM advocates for women at all levels of mathematics through mentoring programs, travel grants, and awards.
- European Women in Mathematics (EWM): A similar organization for Europe.
- Women and Mathematics (WAM) program at the Institute for Advanced Study: An annual program that provides mathematical training and mentoring.
- EDGE (Enhancing Diversity in Graduate Education): A program for women and underrepresented minorities entering graduate school.
- Caucus for Women in Statistics: Supports women in statistics and related mathematical sciences.
Mentoring
Mentoring programs that pair junior women with senior women mathematicians have been shown to improve retention. Knowing that someone who looks like you has succeeded in the field is powerful.
Inclusive Teaching
Research on inclusive pedagogy suggests that how mathematics is taught affects who stays in the field. Collaborative learning environments, growth-mindset messaging, and visible representation in examples and role models all help.
Institutional Policies
Some institutions have adopted policies that address structural barriers:
- Parental leave and tenure-clock extensions
- Dual-career hiring programs
- Family-friendly conference policies (childcare at conferences, virtual participation options)
- Transparent hiring and promotion criteria
What Individuals Can Do
Actions That Make a Difference
- Cite women's work. Be deliberate about attributing ideas and results to their originators.
- Invite women to speak. At seminars, conferences, and workshops.
- Mentor. If you are senior, mentor junior women. If you are junior, seek out mentors.
- Speak up. When you witness bias or exclusionary behavior, say something.
- Examine your own biases. Everyone has implicit biases. The first step is awareness.
- Support parents. Be understanding when colleagues with children need flexibility.
- Create inclusive environments. In your courses, your seminars, and your research groups.
Voices of Women Mathematicians
Ingrid Daubechies
The mathematician and physicist Ingrid Daubechies, known for her foundational work on wavelets, has spoken about the importance of persistence:
"I was always good at math, and I always liked it. I didn't realize for a long time that not everybody felt the same way."
— Ingrid Daubechies
Moon Duchin
The mathematician Moon Duchin, who works on geometric group theory and redistricting, has been an advocate for making mathematics more accessible and inclusive.
Nalini Joshi
Nalini Joshi, an Australian mathematician specializing in integrable systems, founded the "150 Years of Women at the University of Sydney" project and has been vocal about gender equity in mathematics.
The Future
The participation of women in mathematics has improved dramatically over the past century, but the field is not yet equitable. Progress requires sustained effort at every level — individual, departmental, institutional, and cultural.
The goal is not simply to increase the number of women in mathematics (though that matters). The goal is to create a field where talent and passion determine success, regardless of gender.
As Emmy Noether showed, when barriers are removed, the results can be transformative — not just for the individual, but for mathematics itself.
References
- Association for Women in Mathematics, About AWM
- National Science Foundation, Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering
- Sylvia Wiegand, "Grace Chisholm Young and the 1893 Göttingen Doctorate," Mathematical Intelligencer, 2002
- Constance Reid, Julia: A Life in Mathematics, MAA, 1996
- Maryam Mirzakhani, Interview with Clay Mathematics Institute, 2008
- Albert Einstein, "Professor Einstein Writes in Appreciation of a Fellow-Mathematician," The New York Times, May 5, 1935
- Karen Uhlenbeck, Abel Prize biography, abelprize.no
- Bettye Anne Case and Anne Leggett, eds., Complexities: Women in Mathematics, Princeton University Press, 2005